General Sources
Annelids
Arthropods
Coelenterates
Echinoderms
Molluscs
Other Invertebrates

 
Costello, D. P., M.E. Davidson, A. Eggers, M.H. Fox, and C. Henley. 1957. Methods for Obtaining and Handling Marine Eggs and Embryos. Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA.

 
Lo Bianco, S. 1899. The methods employed at the Naples Zoological Station for the preservation of marine animals. Translated from the original Italian by E.O. Hovey. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. No. 39, Part M:3-42.

 
Pantin, C.F.A. 1946. Notes on Microscopical Techniques for Zoologists. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

 
Ross, L. G. , and B. Ross. 1999. Anaesthetic and Sedative Techniques for Aquatic Animals,2nd ed. Blackwell Science, U.K.

 
Russell, H. D. 1963. Notes on Methods for the Narcotization, Killing, Fixation, and Preservation of Marine Organisms. Systematics-Ecology Program. Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA. Available online at http://www.mbl.edu/BiologicalBulletin/CLASSICS/RUSSELL/Russell-Title Page.html.

[Note. This manual contains, in part, material from two earlier works: Lo Bianco (1899), and Wagstaff and Fidler (1955), and is devoted principally to specimen preservation methods.]

 
Wagstaff, R., and J. H. Fidler. 1955. The Preservation of Natural History Specimens. Vol. I. Invertebrates. H. F. & G. Witherby, London.

Annelids

 
Irvine, S.Q., and M.Q. Martindale. 1999. Laboratory culture of the larvae of spionidan polychaetes. Marine Models Electronic Record [online; cited Nov. 1999]. Available: http://www.mbl.edu/BiologicalBulletin/MMER/IRV/IrvTit.html

NOTE: For photography of later stage larvae, propylene phenoxytol (PP here =propylene glycol phenol ether; Dow Chemical) was combined with immobilization by compressing larvae under a cover slip. This did not work on early-stage larvae, which were relaxed in FASW containing 4% ethanol.

 
Tweedell, K. S. 1996. Pectinaria--oocyte maturation, spawning and early egg development. (Appendix 5) Marine Models Electronic Record [online; cited Nov. 1999]. Available: http://www.mbl.edu/BiologicalBulletin/MMER/TWE/TweTit.html.

Arthropods

 
Ahmad, M.F. 1969. Anaesthetic effects of tricaine methane sulfonate (MS 222 Sandoz) on Gammarus pulex (L.) (Amphipoda). Crustaceana (Leiden) 16:197-201.

[Note: Other concentrations of AB were tested at various temperatures; higher concentrations were needed at lower treatment temperatures and vice versa; recovery from higher concentrations required temperatures lower than 20 ^oC.]

 
Brown, P.B., M.R. White, J. Chaille, M. Russell, and C. Oseto. 1996. Evaluation of three anesthetic agents for crayfish (Orconectes virilis). J. Shellfish Res. 15:433-435.

 
Ferraro, E.A., and L. Pressacco. 1996. Anesthetic procedures for crustacea. An assessment of isobutanol and xylazine as general anaesthetics for Squilla mantis (Stomatopoda). Mem. Biol. Mar. Oceanogr. 12:471-75.

 
Foley, D.M., J.E. Stewart, and R.A. Holley. 1966. Isobutyl alcohol and methyl pentynol as general anesthetics for the lobster, Homarus americanus Milne-Edwards. Can. J. Zool. 44:141-143.

[Note: Isobutyl alcohol (IA) was less toxic than methyl pentynol; though other concentrations of IA were tested, the concentration range listed was recommended for routine use.]

 
Gardner, C. 1997. Options for humanely immobilizing and killing crabs. J. Shellfish Res. 16:219-224.

[Note: Several other agents were tested, some of which were effective by immersion.]

 
McKenzie, J.D., P. Calow, and W.S. Nimmo. 1992. Effects of inhalational general anesthetics on intact Daphnia magna (Cladocera, Crustacea). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C - Pharmacol., Toxicol., Endocrinol. 101:9-13.

[Note: the anesthetic agents enflurane, halothane, and isoflurane were also tested, and required higher concentrations than the methoxyflurane (MF) listed in the table.]

 
Oswald, R.L. 1977. Immobilization of decapod crustacea for experimental procedures. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK 57:715-721.

[Note: Injection was through posterior leg arthrodial membrane. Many other agents were tested on C. maenas or Cancer pagurus, C. maenas). Most other agents were ineffective, but alphaxolone (Saffan), pentobarbitone (Nembutal), propanidid (Epontal), and xylazine (Rompun) were also useful at 30, 250, 100, and 70 mg/kg, respectively.]

 
Paterson, B.D. 1993. Respiration rate of the Kuriama prawn, Penaeus japonicusBate, is not increased by handling at low temperature (12 degrees C). Aquaculture 114:229-235.

Coelenterates

 
Moore, S.J. 1989. Narcotizing sea anemones. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK 69: 803-811.

[Note: AB, CH, ME, and MC were all tested on many species of anemones; each was more effective on some species than on others. The ME technique, for which one species is listed, was recommended by Moore as "one of the simplest and most effective."]

 
Westfall, J. A., K. L. Sayyar, C. F. Elliott, and C. J. P. Grimmelikhuijzen. 1995. Ultrastructural localization of antho-RWamides I and II at neuromuscular synapses in the gastrodermis and oral sphincter muscle of the sea anemone Calliactis parasitica. Biol. Bull. 189: 280-287.

Echinoderms

 
Costello, D. P., and C. Henley. 1971. Methods for Obtaining and Handling Marine Eggs and Embryos, 2nd ed. Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA [link to online text for this species: Axiognathus, formerly Amphipholis]

[Note: Original edition was Costello et al, 1957]

 
Hill, R.B., and D. Reinschmidt. 1976. Relative importance of the antioxidant and anesthetic properties of propylene phenoxetol in its action as a "preservative" for living holothurians. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 28: 131-135.

 
McCurley, R. S., and W. M. Kier. 1995. The functional morphology of starfish tube feet: the role of a crossed-fiber helical array in movement. Biol. Bull. 188: 197-209.

[Note: the method here follows that of Messenger et al, 1985, which followed that of Pantin, 1955]

 
O'Neill, P.L. 1994. The effect of anesthesia on spontaneous contraction of the body wall musculature in the asteroid Coscinasterias calamaria. Mar. Behav. Physiol. 24: 137-150.
 
[Note on PP identity: O'Neill, 1994 states that the chemical identity of the "propylene phenoxetol" used in some earlier studies is uncertain, that PP is actually 1-phenoxy propane-2-ol according to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), and that this is the compound likely to have been obtained by various investigators from Nipa Laboratories, UK. According to Coney, 1993, if PP is not available, the related compound 2-phenoxyethanol is a good substitute.]

 
VandenSpiegel, D., and M. Janoux. 1987. Cuvierian tubules of the holothuroid Holothuria forskali (Echinodermata): a morphofunctional study. Mar. Biol. 96: 263-275.

Molluscs

 
Bower, J.R., Y. Sakurai, J. Yamamoto, and H. Ishii. 1999. Transport of ommastrephid squid Todarodes pacificusunder cold-water anesthesia. Aquaculture 170:127-130.

 
Coney, C.C. 1993. An empirical evaluation of various techniques for anesthetization and tissue fixation of freshwater Unionoida (Mollusca: Bivalvia), with a brief history of experimentation in molluscan anesthetization. Veliger 36:413-424.

[Note: This paper contains a review of older literature on molluscan anesthetization.]

 
Costello, D. P., and C. Henley. 1971. Methods for Obtaining and Handling Marine Eggs and Embryos. 2nd ed. Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA [link to online text for this species: Crepidula]

[Note: Original edition was Costello et al, 1957]

 
Costello, D. P., and C. Henley. 1971. Methods for Obtaining and Handling Marine Eggs and Embryos.2nd ed. Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA [link to online text for this species: Cumingia]

[Note: Original edition was Costello et al, 1957]

 
Culloty, S.C., and M.F. Mulcahey. 1992. An evaluation of anesthetics for Ostrea edulis. Aquaculture 107:249-252.

 
Garcia-Franco, M. 1992. Anesthetics for the squid Sepioteuthis sepoidea(Mollusca: Cephalopoda). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 103C:121-123.

 
Heasman, M. P., W.A. O'Connor, and A.W.J. Frazer. 1995. Induction of anaesthesia in the commercial scallop, Pecten fumatus Reeve. Aquaculture 131:231-238.

 
Messenger, J. B., M. Nixon, and K. P. Ryan. 1985. Magnesium chloride as an anesthetic for cephalopods. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 82C: 203-205.

[Note: initially, 7.5% MgCl₂.6H₂O made in distilled water was mixed with an equal vol. of seawater, making an isotonic solution acc. to Pantin, 1946; subsequently, a stock MgCl₂ solution was mixed with fresh seawater as needed.]

 
Mills, D., A. Tlili, and J. Norton. 1997. Large-scale anesthesia of the silver-lip pearl oyster, Pinctada maximaJameson. J. Shellfish Res. 16:573-574.

 
O'dor, R.K., H.O. Pörtner, and R.E. Shadwick. 1990. Squid as elite athletes: locomotory, respiratory and circulatory integration. In: Squid as Experimental Animals, D.L. Gilbert, W.J. Adelman, and J.M. Arnold, eds. Plenum Press, New York.

 
Owen, G. 1955. Use of propylene phenoxytol as a relaxing agent. Nature 175:434.

[Note on PP use: In Owen's original procedure, 5 ml propylene phenoxytol (from Nipa laboratories; see also Note on "propylene phenoxytol" identity) was shaken vigorously with 15-20 ml seawater. This produced a fine emulsion, which in turn was added to seawater in which there were actively siphoning animals. The final % (v/v) propylene phenoxytol in the diluted "emulsion" is not given. After 30 min, animals had gaping valves and a protruding foot, but they recovered upon return to fresh seawater. Many species were studied, of which three are listed in Table 1.]

 
White, H.I., T. Hecht, and B. Potgeiter. 1996. The effect of four anesthetics on Haliotis midaeand their suitability for application in commercial abalone culture. Aquaculture 140:145-151.

Other Invertebrates

 
Emscherman, P. 1993. Lime-twig glands: a unique invention of an antarctic entoproct. Biol. Bull. 185: 97-108.